The technical innovations post the problem of financing the new capital investments which they made necessary.
(1)the aircraft manufactures became increasingly involved with raising capital for their customers, either through the commercial banks in their own counting or through special export trade banks.
(2)the emerged consortia of banks which purchased aircraft and then leased them to the airlines.
2.航空运输业发展特征。In the first place, the rate of growth of non-scheduled air transport was higher than that of scheduled. Secondly, the profitability of airlines during the last 30 years has been fairly marginal despite the rapid growth of demand for their services. 3.航空运输发展阶段。 During 1960s: unit cost declined.
1968-1975：airlines struggled for financial survival. 1975-1978: the world’s airlines did very well.
1979- 1983: airlines entered a period of deep crisis.
The second half of the 1980s: dramatic turn- around in airline’s fortunes.
过两三年中国航空业是好是坏：the industry’s indebtedness will worsen because the large number of aircraft orders.
4.Non- economic regulations（Technical standard，Technical regulations）技术规章
The objective is to keep high level of safety of airline operation, covering every aspect of airline activity. 目标作用 (1)Regulation of the Aircraft Airworthiness.（Design standard，Production standard，Performance: engine）适航 (2)Regulations covering the timing, nature and supervision of maintenance and over- haul work and the training and qualification of the engineers. 维修
(3) Regulations governing the numbers and type of flight and cabin crew. (Duties, Training , Licensing, Workload, Schedules) 机组
(4) Detailed regulations covering both the way in which aircraft are operated and the operation of the
aircraft.(Licensed by the authority, Satisfy certain criteria, Comply with operating standards) (5) Regulations and recommended standards dealing with aviation infrastructure.(Airports, Meteorological services, En-route navigational facilities) 保障设施
5.航空业发展原因：(1)the falling level of operating costs enabled airlines to offer tariffs that were lower tariffs in real terms.(2)per capita incomes(人均收入) in the developed countries of the world were increasing.(3)there was a boom in world trade, which increased both business travel and demand for air freight facilities.
6.技术规章的特点。General and not specific to a particular aircraft type and promulgated(颁布) as regulations of the civil aviation directorates or the relevant ministries of each country.（Federal aviation regulations-USA, Air navigation order-UK, International standards and recommended practice）
7.在技术规章，管理者如何经营？
Although these various technical standards and safety procedures constrained airline managers and impose penalties on airline operations. Such external controls are inevitable if high safety standards are to be maintained, and significantly all airlines are equally affected by them. No major airline can enjoy a competitive advantage since there are no “flags of convenience” on air transport for airlines to circumvent safety or manning regulations. 8.Economic regulations 经济规章
(1) The exchange of air traffic rights, or freedom of the air. 航权 The first and second traffic right——overflying right
The third and fourth right——mutual exchange of the commercial traffic right-loading and unloading right The fifth and sixth right——the right granted by country A to an airline from country B to carry traffic between A and countries other than B.
(2)The control of fares and freight tariffs. regulated by the international air transport association.
(3)The control of frequencies and capacity. Inter-airline agreement and sometimes for bilateral state agreement.
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经济规章的作用: effectively determine the nature of any industry, for they regulate the entry of firms into each market(through traffic rights), the degree of pricing freedom and the nature of controls on production, if any. 9.航权对航空公司的限制。（经济规章对航空公司的限制）
First, their markets are often restricted. Secondly, the level of output or product of each airline is not entirely at its own discretion. Lastly, airlines’ pricing freedom is also limited. 10.直接运营成本、间接运营成本
Direct operating costs should include all those costs which are associated with and dependent on the type of aircraft being operated and which would change if the aircraft type wan changed. Including all flying espenses( such as flight crew salaries, fuel and oil), all maintenance and overhaul costs and all aircraft depreciation costs.
Indirect operating costs are all those costs which will remain unaffected by a change of aircraft operations. Including areas of expenditure (passenger service costs, costs of ticketing and sales, and station and ground costs), general administrative costs. 11.Direct Operating Costs 1)Cost of flight operations
(1) all costs associated with flight crews:direct salaries, stopover expenses, allowances, pensions, insurance and social welfares payment. (2) fuel and oil (3) airport and en route charges
(4) insurance of the flight equipment (5) cost of flight training costs or of route development. if it is amortized over several years then they are group together with depreciation.
2) Maintenance and overhaul costs: a whole series of separate costs, related to different aspects of maintenance and overhaul.
3)Depreciation and amortization
annual depreciation=(price of aircraft-residual value)/depreciation period Hourly depreciation cost=annual depreciation cost/the block time Indirect operation costs
1.Station and ground expenses——providing an airline’ s services at an airport
2. Cost of passenger passenger services——the pay, allowances and other expenses directly related to aircraft cabin staff and other passenger service personnel
3. Ticketing, sales and promotion costs——all expenditure, pay, allowances, etc., related to staff engaged in ticketing, sales and promotion activities and so on
4. General and administrative costs——Those costs which are truly general to the airline or which cannot readily be allocated to a particular activity
12.市场营销步骤。The marketing audit; Analyzing opportunities (scanning the environment, analyzing customer needs); Developing strategy; Developing a control system.
13.Developing the strategy 针对旅客需求制定策略从哪几方面考虑？
(1) to provide service to satisfy the customers need at the least possible cost to the customers.
(2) a good strategy must know the characteristic of air transportation: uncertain, seasonal, directional ,depending on the time of day, and density.
14. Developing a Control System: Measure its performance in the marketplace, compare it to the plan, take corrective action on a timely basis.
(1)the macro level: marketing performance is measured and compared to the plan with respect to such variables as overall sales, market share, and load factor.
Macro- level control system: the sales analysis and the marketing profitability analysis. (2) The micro level: the interest shift to the profitability of individual services or the marketing mix. an analysis of the contribution of each element of the marketing mix and of the mix itself.
15. 机场服务、设施分类。（机场收入来源）
(1) Essential operational services and facilities——Activities concerning safety of aircraft and airport itself,such
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as: Air traffic control service, Landing of aircraft, meteorological service, telecommunications Police and security, fire and ambulance services of search and rescue, runway and building maintenance. 基本运营服务和设施 安保的重要性with the increase in hijacking and terrorism, policing and security is nowadays an airport service of considerable importance. Apart from the normal police duties required at any large public place, specialist staff are now also needed for passenger search, baggage search, access control and so on. These latter services are sometimes defined as security rather than policing activities but the distinction between the two is very blurred and so they are considered together.后一类的服务有时也被界定为一种安全措施，而不算警方行为；但两者的区别经常模糊不清，所以经常把两者一起考虑。
(2) traffic handing——some are associated directly with the aircraft itself and include cleaning, provision of power and loading or unloading of the baggage/freight hold. This is sometimes referred to as ramp handling. Other handling activities are more directly traffic related and cover the various stages of processing of passengers, baggage of freight through the respective terminals and onto the aircraft. 航空性业务收入
(3) Commercial activities——Most European airports commercial facilities are provided by concessionaires. The airport authorities will collect concession fees or rents from these companies. But there are some exemptions. Almost all airport in U.S. the commercial services are contracted out and done by the specified companies. 16. 机场成本构成。Cost structure:
1) the European airports: (1) staff and labor cost: the largest single cost element.
The airport itself provides passenger or baggage handling, freight handling, catering, the operation of duty- free shops or other shopping facilities. (2) Capital charges:include interest paid and depreciation. (3) The cost of services of equipment and of supplies:12% or so. (4)Maintenance and repair costs: around 9% of the cost. (5)Administration: 4%. (6)Other cost represent 11%of total coats 2) The airport of the United state: (1)Staff costs reduced: The terminal and other facilities of the airport is rented or leased out to the airlines or others, the terminal may even be owned by airlines rather than the airports. Most airports have financed much their development through it revenue bonds.
(2) Capital charge: Interest paid is the major part of their annual expenditure. And the depreciation and interest paid represent a relatively large proportion.
17.机场收入构成。Source of airport revenue
(1)US airport revenue: High commercial sources major revenue is from the aeronautical charge.
Non- aeronautical revenue are those generated from non- aircraft- related commercial activities in the terminal or on the airport land——rents for office space and check-in desks, shopping concessions of various kinds, car- parking fee, recharge to tenants for services, catering and so on.
(2) The European airports revenue: major revenue is from the aeronautical activities. 18.影响旅客需求的因素。
1)The general economic: (1)The price of air transport.(2) The level and distribution of personal income.
The growth of air transport can be explained by the two factors, the level of economic activity and trade directly influences the growth of demand for business travel, it also influences leisure demand
2)supply- related factor: Frequency, seat availability, departure, arrival times, en- route stops, other supply feature. Overall speed and convenience. 3)The particular factors
(1)Demand for holiday trips related to the tourist attractiveness of particular destination.
(2) The visiting friends and relatives(VFR) demand is clearly affected by earlier population movements and migrations. (3) The demand for business travel is related to the level of trade and commercial interaction between two city pairs.
19.航班时刻表编排考虑三个因素：
1)Public requirement 公众需求
(1)Passenger volumes(area demand) : city pair( O &D), and connecting passengers.
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(2)Departure and arrival times: the passengers’ and shippers’ desired departure and arrival times, meanwhile avoiding bunching flights at peak period. (3) stops en- routes. (4) Traffic density and time zones. 2)Economic efficiency: aircraft utilization and load factor
3 ) Operating considerations——Maintenance department; Crew scheduling; Ground facilities and personnel; Other operating constraints; route authority; the positioning of aircraft; The number of slots available at any given airport.
4)Flight operations and Crew Scheduling——Airport runway length; Aircraft fuel capacity; Habitual adverse weather; Air traffic control and routing; Crew time limits; Employee agreement 5)Ground operations and facility limitations
6) Schedule planning and coordination: All productive resources- planes, trained personnel, and ground facilities- have the one essential function of operating the schedule safely and dependably.
All selling resources- the carrier’s ticket offices, reservations offices, sales representatives, advertising program- have the one essential function of getting passengers and shippers to use the schedule. 20.包机的种类。several groups of charters ——ITCs and Affinity group
ITCs :the whole aircraft is chartered by one or more tour operators who combine the round trip seats with hotel or other accommodation into “package” holidays.
Affinity group or ABCs: groups which have some common purpose in making a trip.
ITCs are distinctive in that a passenger can not buy only a seat on the flight but must buy a holiday package of some kind.
The passengers buy the ITCs services only through an intermediary not the airline.
21.包机为什么能赚钱？成本优势——直接、间接Cost advantage of non- scheduled operations
（包机的特点The characteristics is that charters’ ability to sell seats at one- half or even one third of the price of their scheduled airline competitors and still make profit.）
1)direct operating costs: In general, the charters have no obvious advantages in direct operating costs. (1) Flight operation costs: flight crew salaries, fuel costs and insurance costs have no more advantages than the scheduled flight; landing fees are lower than the scheduled one by using the cheaper airports.
(2) Maintenance costs for both charter and scheduled operations would be broadly similar if using the same aircraft on the same routes.
(3)Depreciation costs per hour would also be the same if both charter and scheduled airlines achieved the same utilization.
2)Indirect operating costs are a much lower proportion of the total costs of charter airlines than of scheduled airlines. (1)Charters can reduce its indirect operating cost markedly by subcontracting out most of the aircraft, passenger and baggage handling activities.
(2)Charter airlines will also have lower expenditure on passenger services by providing the statutory minimum required for safety.
(3)The largest savings obtained by charter airlines arise in ticketing, sales and promotion.
(4)Charter airlines tend to have very much lower general and administrative cost because they require fewer administrative and accounting staff.
A charter airline can make economies in virtually all areas of indirect cost, thereby reducing its total operating costs to levels well below those that can be achieved by a scheduled airline flying the same aircraft on the same route.
3) high seating densities and high load factors. 22.客机腹舱存货存在什么问题？客货的关系。
(1)Passenger aircraft could not handle large or outsize consignments.
(2)Freight is more likely to be offloaded if take-off weight limits were exceeded. ——客货关系
(3)The timing and routing of passenger services did not always match the needs of freight shippers.
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23.货运特点及需求特点。
1)The major economic advantage of the freighter is that it increases its payload by half or more compared with the same aircraft in a passenger configuration. 2) The demand for air freight services
(1)Air freight is much more heterogeneous than passengers
(2)The most obvious role for air transport is the carriage of emergency freight. ( vaccines and spare parts; business contract or other legal papers, medical records, financial papers, articles and reports, and so on.)
(3)Goods with ultra- high value in relation to their weight are also normally carried by air primarily because of the much higher security offered.
(4)Routine freight: the shipper’ s decision to use air transport is based on an assessment of available transport options and is not a response to a sudden and unexpected problem.
24.（非）鲜活易腐货物的特点、区别。Routine freight is divided into perishable and non-perishable freight. 1) (1) The commercial life for perishables is short and the gap between producer and consumer must be bridged before that the commercial life expires.
(2)In the case of perishables, the market for them is that dependent on air transport. (3)The demand for air freight is fairly price sensitive.
2) (1)Routine non- perishable freight is shipped by air because higher transport costs are more than offset by savings in other elements of distribution costs.
(2)The savings include documentation and insurance costs, packaging, ground collection, delivery and handling. (3)Routine non- perishable freight consists of fragile high- value goods as well as semi- manufacture goods needed in various production processes.
(4)shipments of routine non-perishable freight tend to be regular, known in advance and often of relatively constant size.
(5)Non- perishable freight is less price sensitive than perishable freight, but is responsive to the total distribution costs of air transport.
25.航空运输为什么能满足JIT? Because of its high speed and its dependability. 1.The need to modify and improve Marketing process:市场营销作用
Changing customer demands, a slowdown n the rate of traffic growth, increasing competition. 2.the fundamental task marketing : 市场营销任务
to monitor changing needs and preferences of passengers and shippers and ,using this information , to influence the other functional organizations in the airline to create the mix of services at prices that competitive, to produce value for various target segments of the market, and to earn profit for the airline. 3.市场营销步骤分析。
1) (1)The marketing audit: To conduct a comprehensive and systematic marketing audit to identify problems opportunities. (comprehensively, objectively, independently) (2)Marketing audit areas:
external environment:Economic, demographic, social and regulatory trends.
The airlines’ markets, its customers, its competitors and the external distributions of its customers. Infrastructure- industry components.
internal organization: An assessment of the marketing program. Its organization.Information system. control. marketing strategy: Assessment of the marketing strategy : Evaluate various elements of the marketing mix 2) Analyzing opportunities
(1)Scanning the environment The environment can be scan from four perspectives:
Government: governmental forces, the extent and type of regulation, including safety and environmental standards as well as economic regulations.
Customers：various demographic and cultural forces.
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Market conditions: the increase in the level of competition and impact on such technological advances. Economic conditions: particularly consumer-expenditure patterns.
(2)Analyzing customer needs: factors: schedule: aircraft, number of stops, times of departure and arrival; price; service; Selling advertising, promotion, distribution.
passenger needs: leisure passenger: fare; business passenger: frequency, punctuality, service; VFR:
frequency, punctuality. Shipper needs: tariff, delivery, undamaged.
4.异质性
（1）The air freight remains very heterogeneous with a wide range of different manufactured and semi- manufactured goods, raw materials and agricultural products that may have little in common.
（2）Another aspect of this heterogeneity is that freight comes in all shapes, sizes, densities and weights, there is no standard unit or size for a freight consignment or any standard unit of space.
1.Marketing control is thus an essential ingredient(组成成分，整合) of effective marketing planning. A properly developed and implemented(实施) system should provide valuable information on how the actual results compare to the marketing objectives, strategies, and plans, and on the effective courses(行动方向) of action in the event of a variance(变动) between actual and expected results.
2.Major savings in indirect costs, together with marginally lower direct costs, suggest that if flying similar aircraft a non-scheduled operator may have total round-trip costs between 20 and 30 percent lower than those of a scheduled operator on the same route. This is clearly insufficient to explain the wide differentials in charter and scheduled passenger fares which exist in the European markets. However, the initial 20-30 percent operating cost advantage is magnified by two key elements in the economics of non-scheduled air services: high seating densities and very high load factors.
3.as mentioned earlier, it is the responsibility of marketing to identify(识别) the needs of passengers and shippers and to influence various functions within the airline to produce the services that would satisfy these needs. 4. Information on passenger needs and the degree to which these needs are being fulfilled is derived most effectively through surveys.
5. On the operating side, airline accounts are divided into operating revenue and operating costs. The latter can be further subdivided(细分) into direct operating and indirect operating costs. In theory, the distinction(区别) between these two cost categories is fairly clear.
6. Direct operating should include all those costs which are associated with and which would change if the aircraft type was changed. Broadly speaking, such costs should include all flying expenses (such as flight crew salaries, fuel and oil), all maintenance and overhaul costs and all aircraft depreciation(折旧) costs.
7. Indirect operating costs are all those costs which will remain unaffected by a change of aircraft type because they are not directly dependent on aircraft operations. They include areas of expenditure which are passenger related rather than aircraft related(such as passenger service costs, costs of ticketing and sales, and station and ground costs) as well as general administrative costs(一般行政管理成本).
8. In practice, however, the distinction between direct and indirect operating costs is not always clear out. Certain cost items, such as maintenance administration or costs of cabin staff(乘务员), are categorized as direct costs by some aerlines and as indirect costs by others.
9. An analysis of the external environment calls for an examination(检查) of (1)economic, demographic(人口统计的), social and regulatory(社会和管理趋势) trends;(2)the airline’s markets, its customers, its competitors, and the external distributions(外部分销) of its services; and (3) infrastruction-industry components, such as aircraft manufacturers, airports, and ground services(car rentals, hotels, and the like)
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